Lecture 6: Looking at Language

 

READING ASSIGNMENT: Read Chapter 5.

 

HOMEWORK: Chapter 4 (due 2/15/98): Exercise 1 [#1-5 (a-c only) and #6 (a, c, e, g, i, & k)], Exercise 2, Part A (odds) and Part B (odds).

 

I. The Importance of Looking at Language:

 

II. Definitions:

 

A. Reportive Definitions:

 
    1. A reportive definition is a definition that seeks to report how a word is actually used. It defines the word X in terms of the essential features that a thing must have in order to be X.

      2.  

    2. Examples:

      3.  

      a. father

      b. bachelor

      c. square

      d. island

       

    3. Potential Problems:

 

    1. The definition should not be too narrow. Everything that is called X in ordinary language should fit the definition.

      2.  

      Example: table º a piece of furniture that has a flat top and four legs.

       

    2. The definition should not be too broad. Only that which is called X in ordinary language should fit the definition.

      3.  

      Example: airplane º a motorized craft that flies through the air.

    3. None of the words used in defining a word should be as obscure as the word being defined.

      4.  

      Example: dead º to be in a thanatotic state.

       

    4. The definition should not be circular. That is, the definition of a word should not include any variant of the word being defined.

 

Example: life º that which is alive.

 

B. Ostensive Definitions:

 
    1. An ostensive definition is one in which we try to explain what X is by pointing to an example of X and saying, "This is X."

      2.  

    2. Example: Uttering "This is a table" while pointing at a table.

      3.  

    3. Some Uses and a Potential Problem:

 

 

C. Stipulative Definitions:

 
    1. A stipulative definition is one that specifies a new or special use for a word.
    2. Example: By "person" I mean a being that is both rational and self-aware.
    3. Potential Problems:

 

D. Persuasive Definitions:

 
    1. A persuasive definition is an implicit attempt to give new meaning to a word.

      2.  

    2. Examples:

      3. a. In actuality, abortion is just the surgical removal of unwanted tissue.

      b. A real woman in one who knows how to please a man.

       

    3. What to watch for:

 

E. Practice Problems:

 
    1. mother º a woman who has given birth.
    2. philosopher º a person who philosophizes.
    3. desk º a table that can be used as a place for reading, writing, or drawing.
    4. a minor º a person in their nonage.
    5. library º a building in which many books are stored.
    6. valuable º that which has value.

 

III. Ambiguity:

 

A word or phrase is ambiguous if has more than one distinct meaning and it is not clear from the context which meaning is intended.

 

A. Syntactic Ambiguity:

 
    1. Syntactic ambiguity is ambiguity that arises as result of poor syntax (i.e., grammar).

      2.  

    2. Examples:

      3.  

      a. She likes candy more than her husband.

      b. He saw the farmer with binoculars.

      c. He chased the girl in his car.

      d. I cannot praise this candidate too highly.

       

    3. The Fallacy of Amphibole:

 

A REMARK ABOUT FALLACIES IN GENERAL: Fallacious arguments are bad arguments that often strike people as being cogent. A fallacy is a defect in an argument that consists in something other than just that it has some unacceptable premise(s). Fallacies involve either a common mistake in reasoning or some illusion that makes a bad argument look like a good one.

 

Examples:

 
    1. President Sanders is going to give a lecture on sex in the auditorium.

      2. Therefore,

    2. Some people must be having sex in the auditorium.

 

    1. During W.W.II, the government urged people to save soap and waste paper.
    2. It is a stupid policy to urge people to waste paper.

      3. Therefore,

    3. The government at the time had some stupid policies.

 

B. Semantic Ambiguity:

 
    1. Semantic ambiguity is ambiguity that arises as result of using a word that can have more that one distinct meaning in a context where the intended meaning cannot be determined.

      2.  

    2. Examples:

      3.  

      a. The banks of the Congo are unstable.

      b. She is cold.

      c. He always lines up on the right side.

      d. My brother doesn't have glasses.

       

    3. The Fallacy of Equivocation:

 

    1. Some triangles are obtuse.
    2. Whatever is obtuse is ignorant.

      3. Therefore,

    3. Some triangles are ignorant.

 

    1. Theory is mere speculation.
    2. Evolution is only a theory.

      3. Therefore,

    3. Evolution is mere speculation.

 

    1. Affirmative action is a form of racial discrimination.
    2. Racial discrimination is a form of racism.
    3. Racism is wrong.

      4. Therefore,

    4. Affirmative action is wrong.

 

    1. It is wrong to intentionally kill an innocent human being without their consent.
    2. The fetus is an innocent human being.

      3. Therefore,

    3. It is wrong to intentionally kill a fetus without its consent.

 

The "Have you had anything to drink today?" Example

 

C. Some Important Points about the Fallacies of Amphibole and Equivocation:

 
    1. Some word or phrase in the argument is ambiguous.
    2. The premises support the conclusion only if the ambiguous word/phrase is disambiguated in the same way throughout the entire argument.
    3. All the premises are acceptable only if the ambiguous word/phrase is not disambiguated in the same way throughout the entire argument.
    4. When more than one premise is involved, the premises are linked.

 

IV. Other Problems with Language:

 

A. Vagueness:

 
    1. What It Is:
    2. Examples:

      3.  

      a. He's different.

      b. He's old.

      c. I'll be back in awhile.

      d. Abortion is not the best solution to an unwanted pregnancy.

      e. Joe's parent is going to be there.

    3. When is it a problem?

 

B. Emotionally Charged Language:

 
    1. What It Is:
    2. Example: The death penalty is a cruel and inhuman form of punishment in which hapless prisoners are dragged from their cells and summarily slaughtered only to satiate the bloodlust of a vengeful public.
    3. When is it a problem?

 

C. Euphemism:

 
    1. What It Is:
    2. Example: A military official speaking to the press about an air raid: The operation did result in minor collateral damage.
    3. When is it a problem?